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Veracruz

Coordinates: 19°31′38″N 96°55′21″W / 19.52722°N 96.92250°W / 19.52722; -96.92250
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This article is about the Mexican state. For the Mexican city, see Veracruz (city). For other uses, see Veracruz (disambiguation).
Veracruz
Cuetlaxcoapan (Nahuatl)
State
Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave
Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (Spanish)
Tlahtohcayotl Cuetlaxcoapan (Nahuatl)
Citlaltépetl, the highest mountain in Mexico
Citlaltépetl, the highest mountain in Mexico
Coat of arms of Veracruz
Coat of arms
Motto: 
Plus Ultra
(Beyond)
Anthem: Himno Veracruzano
State of Veracruz within Mexico
State of Veracruz within Mexico
Coordinates: 19°31′38″N 96°55′21″W / 19.52722°N 96.92250°W / 19.52722; -96.92250
CountryMexico
CapitalXalapa
Largest cityVeracruz
Largest metroGreater Veracruz
Municipalities212
AdmissionDecember 22, 1823[1][2]
Order7th
Government
 • Governor Rocío Nahle García
 • Senators[5] Raquel Bonilla Herrera[nb 1]
Manuel Huerta Ladrón de Guevara
Miguel Ángel Yunes Márquez[nb 2]
 • Deputies[6]
Area
[7]
 • Total
71,826 km2 (27,732 sq mi)
 Ranked 11th
Highest elevation
(Pico de Orizaba)
5,610 m (18,410 ft)
Population
 (2020)[8]
 • Total
8,062,579
 • Rank4th
 • Density110/km2 (290/sq mi)
  • Rank10th
Demonyms
  • Veracruzano, -na (formal)
  • Jarocho, -cha (colloquial)
GDP
[9]
 • TotalMXN 1.227 trillion
(US$61.0 billion) (2022)
 • Per capita(US$7,491) (2022)
Time zoneUTC−06:00 (CST)
Postal code
91–96
Area code
ISO 3166 codeMX-VER
HDIIncrease 0.744 high Ranked 28th of 32
Websitewww.veracruz.gob.mx
  1. ^ Substitute for Claudia Tello Espinosa, who requested a leave from the Senate on November 26, 2024[3] to occupy the State's Secretariat of Education in the government of Rocío Nahle.
  2. ^ After having voted in favor of president López Obrador's Judicial Reform, senator Yunes was expelled from the PAN on September 11, 2024.[4]

Veracruz,[a] formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave,[b] officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave,[c] is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in eastern Mexico, Veracruz is bordered by seven states, which are Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Tabasco. Veracruz is divided into 212 municipalities, and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez.

Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico on the east of the state. The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río and Orizaba.

Etymology

[edit]

The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave. Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz (From Latin Vera Crux, "True Cross"), which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos (1818–1863), who was the governor of Veracruz from 1861 to 1862. The state's seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early colonial days of the 16th century.[11]

History

[edit]

Pre-Columbian

[edit]
Colossal stone head, Olmec culture, around 900 BC

During the pre-Columbian era, Veracruz was mainly populated by four indigenous groups: the Huastecs and Otomis in the north, the Totonacs in the north-center, and the Olmecs in the south.[12] Remains of these past civilizations can be found in archeological sites such as Pánuco, Castillo de Teayo, El Zapotal, Las Higueras, Quiahuiztlán, El Tajín, Cempoala, Tres Zapotes and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán.[13]

The first major civilization in the territory of the current state was that of the Olmecs. The Olmecs lived in the Coatzacoalcos River region and it became the center of Olmec culture. The main ceremonial center here was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán. Other major centers in the state include Tres Zapotes in the city of Veracruz and La Venta in Tabasco. The culture reached its height about 2600 years ago, with its best-known artistic expression being the colossal stone heads.[13] These ceremonial sites were the most complex of that early time period. Consequently, many anthropologists regard the Olmecs as the "mother culture" of numerous other Mesoamerican cultures. However, according to historian John Schmal, the Olmecs were "eclipsed" by other emerging Mesoamerican civilizations by 300 BCE.[12]

Another major group was the Totonacs, who have survived to the present day. Their region, called Totonacapan, is centered between the Cazones River and the Papaloapan River in the north of the state. Pre-Columbian Totonacs lived from hunting, fishing and agriculture, mostly of corn, beans, chili peppers and squash. This is also the native region of the vanilla bean. Clay sculptures with smiling faces are indicative of this culture. The major site is El Tajín, located near Papantla, but the culture reached its apogee in Cempoala (about five miles (8.0 km) inland from the current port of Veracruz), when it was conquered by the Aztecs.[13] When the Spaniards arrived in 1519, the territory was still home to a population of about 250,000 people living in fifty population centers and speaking four Totonac dialects. 25,000 were living in Cempoala alone.[12]

The Huastecs are in the far north of the Veracruz and extend into parts of Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro and Puebla. The language and agricultural techniques of these people and the Maya are similar; however, only a few buildings and ceramics remain from the early Huastec culture. This culture also reached its peak between 1200 and 1519, when it was conquered by the Spanish.[13]

During the 15th and very early 16th century, the Aztecs came to dominate much of the state and dividing it into tributary provinces, of Tochtepec, Cuetlaxtlan, Cempoallan, Quauhtochco, Jalapa, Misantla, and Tlatlauhquitepec. The Aztecs were interested in the area's vegetation and crops such as cedars, fruit, cotton, cacao, corn, beans and vanilla. However, the Totonacs chafed under Aztec rule, with Aztec rulers from Axayacatl to Moctezuma II having to send soldiers to quell rebellions. The Huastecs were subjugated more successfully by the Aztecs and relegated to the provinces of Atlan and Tochpan.[12]

Colonial period, 1519–1821

[edit]
Playa Villa Rica, where the Spanish built the first city of Veracruz
Statue of rebel leader Yanga

Veracruz played an important part in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés and his expedition members. They founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz on May 18, 1519, as the first Spanish town in what is now Mexico. By doing so, Cortés threw off the authority of the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, claiming authority directly from the Spanish crown. A small contingent of the expedition remained at Veracruz, while the main body of conquerors moved inland.[14]

Among the first groups encountered by the Spanish in the Americas were the Totonacs.[12] Juan de Grijalva was the first Spaniard to make contact with the Totonacs near present-day Veracruz.[13] Seeking to free his people from Aztec rule, Totonac ruler Tlacochcalcatl offered conquistador Hernán Cortés 50,000 warriors to take Tenochtitlan. With Spanish assistance, the Totonacs expelled Aztec tax collectors and took over some Aztec outposts.[12] The city of Veracruz was established as the first Spanish-controlled municipality on the coast. Cortés then advanced towards Tenochtitlan, initiating the Spanish conquest.[13] As Cortés's campaign progressed, certain Totonac factions sided with the Spanish, while the Huastecs, also under Aztec rule, resisted Cortés's forces. After the Aztecs were defeated at Tenochtitlan, Cortés sent a unit to conquer the Huastecs as well.[12]

During the early conquest era, Cortés distributed the labor of indigenous settlements to particular conquerors in an institution known as encomienda. The indigenous ruler of the settlement was charged with mobilization labor and tribute that was due to the holder of the encomienda. Veracruz had a number of encomiendas that changed hands a number of times, but early on came under the direct control of the Spanish crown rather than individual encomenderos.[15]

During the colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for immigrants from Spain, African slaves, and all types of luxury goods for import and export. The first group of Franciscans arrived in Veracruz in 1524, walking barefoot to the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain.[16] The route between Veracruz and the Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, was the key trade route during the colonial era. Much of the history of the state is involved with the port city that Cortés founded in 1519. Veracruz became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the colony of New Spain and Spain itself.[12] To ensure the port's monopoly, it came to have control over almost all of New Spain's Gulf coastline.[13] New Spain's silver and cochineal red dye, were the two most important exports from the port, along with chocolate, vanilla, chili peppers, and much more were exported. Imported were livestock (sheep, cows, goats, horses), wheat and other cultivars. From the Caribbean, slaves, pineapple, and sugar cane were introduced. This made the port a highly prized target for pirates during the colonial period, with attacks and sackings frequent.[17][12] This led to the building of the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, a site Juan de Grijalva visited in 1518,[18] and the fortification of the city overall.[13]

Much of Totonac and Huastec culture have survived the colonial period into the present day. Much of the reason for this is that the north of Veracruz is rugged with thick vegetation and relatively little of the resources the Spanish were looking for.[12] Veracruz is considered to be where the "mestizo" or mixed European/indigenous ethnicities began, which is a large part of Mexican cultural identity.[13]

Arriving with the Spanish conquerors, new diseases made their first appearance in the continent. European diseases[19] decimated the native population of the province, prompting the importation of African slaves during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. The Spanish imported between 500,000 and 1,000,000 West African slaves into Mexico between 1535 and 1767 (miscegenation between indigenous and African populations began almost immediately). New Spain did not have any laws prohibiting interracial marriage, hence the correct term is Afro-Mestizo, which includes all 3 ethnicities: Indigenous, African, and Spanish.

Runaway slaves (cimarrones) became problematic to public order since they frequently formed robber bands that attacked travelers on highways. Crown efforts against these groups began in earnest in the late sixteenth century, but a major rebellion broke out in 1606 in the areas of Villa Rica, Nueva Veracruz, Antón Lizardo, and the Rio Blanco area. However, the gravest of these occurred in the Orizaba area, where there were about 500 fugitive slaves. In 1609, a leader named Gaspar Yanga led an insurrection against the Spanish but was defeated in battle. Unrest continued, eventually forcing the government to sign an amnesty pact and giving the Africans the right to form their own community, exacting as a condition that bandits be suppressed. This was called San Lorenzo de Zerral but today it is known as the municipality of Yanga. This was the first time slavery was abolished in the Americas.[13]

In the first half of the seventeenth century, cities such as Córdoba, Orizaba, and Xalapa were formed or expanded to protect the trade route between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz. During this time, the Spanish and mixed-ethnicities population increased as the purely indigenous population continued to fall to a fraction of pre-Conquest levels (due now to mixing, rather than disease). Almost all trade in and out of New Spain had to be with Spain except for some limited trade authorized with England and other Spanish colonies. This would stay in place until 1778, when the Decreto de Libre Comercio, allowing a limited free trade within Spanish-held realms, lifted many of these restrictions on trade with Europe. This would make the port more important than it had been, and led to increased prosperity for the inhabitants.

Outside of the port, in other areas of the province, the economy was based on agriculture, livestock, and commerce. In 1720, Xalapa organized the first trade fair, making it the center for trade between inland Mexican goods and those from abroad. This would lead to its eventual status as the capital of the state.[13]

In 1746, the state was divided into the civil jurisdictions of Pánuco, Tampico, Huayacocotla, Huauchinango, Papantla, Misantla, Xalapa, Jalacingo, Veracruz, Córdoba, Orizaba, Cosamaloapan, Tuxtla, and Cotaxtla.[13]

The port city of Veracruz, and the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, where Cortés landed three hundred years earlier, was where the loyalist soldiers of the Spanish Crown made their last stand against the independence movement in 1824.[12]

Independence

[edit]
Depiction of the Battle of Veracruz during the Mexican–American War

During the Mexican War of Independence, there was support for the insurgents in many parts of the state, with skirmishes erupting in various parts as early as 1811. A major conspiracy against the colonial government was discovered in the port in 1812, with rebels taking Ayahualulco and Ixhuacán during the same year. This forced royalist troops to withdraw to Xalapa. Eventually, this city along with the port were cut off from Mexico City. Most of the state remained in rebel hands during the rest of the war although the commercial class of the port did not support the effort. In 1821, Juan de O'Donojú, the last viceroy of New Spain, came to the port to leave for Spain. However, until 1823, Spanish troops continued to occupy San Juan de Ulúa Fort. In 1826, the city would receive the first of its four titles of "heroic city" for confronting these remaining Spanish troops.[13]

While the last of the Spanish held on in San Juan de Ulúa, Agustín de Iturbide had been declared the emperor of Mexico in 1822. However, his reign quickly encountered resistance from those favoring a republican form of government, including from Antonio López de Santa Anna from his stronghold in Veracruz state. Months later, Iturbide would go into exile and Santa Anna would eventually hold nine terms as president.[12][13]

The French intervened in Mexico through Veracruz for the first time in the 1838, in what became the Pastry War. The port was blockaded. Efforts to defend the country were coordinated from Xalapa. The port was bombarded, but eventually a settlement was reached.[13]

During the Mexican–American War, the port was blockaded again, this time by the Americans. Initial American attempts in 1847 to land in Alvarado were checked, but the Americans then made a plan to land a few miles south of Veracruz, which surrendered after a 20-day siege, defeated General Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, and marched inland through Xalapa towards Mexico City, led by General Winfield Scott.[12][13] Mexico surrendered shortly after.

The municipalities of Tuxpan and Chicontepec belonged to Puebla until 1853, when they were annexed to Veracruz to give the state its final form. In 1855, the State Government Palace was constructed. During the Reform War, the major player was Ignacio de la Llave whose name is part of the state's official designation. In 1858, the port became the site for the liberal government under Benito Juárez after he was forced out of Mexico City during the Reform War. Their control of this port and its customs duties allowed liberal forces to gather resources. Conservative forces attacked the state but were repelled from both the port and Xalapa.[13]

The Reform War devastated Mexico's economy, leaving it unable to repay its European debts. As a result, Juárez annulled the country's foreign debt, prompting Britain, Spain, and France to occupy the Mexican Gulf Coast in October 1861 to force repayment. Under normal conditions, this move would have been blocked by the United States under the Monroe Doctrine, however, that nation was occupied with a Civil War at the time, and the European powers believed that the Americans could not act. Spanish troops under General Manuel Gasset occupied the port of Veracruz without local resistance.[20] Then, in November, the power was also occupied by British and French forces. The Spanish and the British withdrew after making deals with Juárez, but the French pushed on to establish the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. However, this was short-lived and the French were expelled through Veracruz in 1866/67.[12]

In 1863, the state was officially named Veracruz-Llave. After the French were expelled, the state government was in the port of Veracruz. In 1878, the capital was transferred to Orizaba. It was later moved to Xalapa in 1885.[13]

By the end of the century, many infrastructure improvements, such as roads and railways (especially the Ferrocarril Interoceánico) had been completed with the major cities being Veracruz, Orizaba, Xalapa, Córdoba, Jalacingo, Chicontepec and Tantoyuca. The discovery of oil in the north of the state attracted foreign firms, which brought machinery needed for its extraction. These companies included Huasteca Company Petroleum and El Aguila along with American and English firms. During the same time period, uprisings against the government under Porfirio Díaz in the agricultural south of the state were brutally repressed.[13]

20th century to the present

[edit]

Unrest against the Díaz regime continued until the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution ousted him from power. The major event leading up to this war in Veracruz was the cigar-makers strike of 1905, when more than 5,000 workers of the "El Valle Nacional" company walked off the job. The governor, Teodora A. Dehesa, unsuccessfully tried to negotiate a settlement. The strike went on for months until the strikers won. This victory encouraged more actions, until strikes at the factories in Rio Blanco, Nogales, Santa Rosa and Contón de Orizaba resulted in dramatic violence in January 1907.[13] No major battles of the Mexican Revolution were fought in the state, though there were skirmishes and attacks on the port. By 1914 rebel Cándido Agular occupied a number of municipalities in the state and in 1917, Venustiano Carranza transferred the federal government here temporarily.[13]

In April 1914, the Tampico Affair, which concerned U.S. sailors in the city of Tampico, caused President Woodrow Wilson to send American troops to Veracruz for six months, after which Mexico severed diplomatic relations with the United States.[12]

After the Revolution, agrarian reform, including the redistribution of land and the creation of ejidos took place here. The oil companies in the north of the state were nationalized and consolidated into PEMEX in the 1930s by Lázaro Cárdenas. In the 1950s, more road construction, such as the Mexico City- Poza Rica, Veracruz-Alvarado- Coatzacoalco and Tinajas-Ciudad Aleman-Tlacoatalpan highways were constructed. The Universidad Veracruzana was expanded as well. In 1960, the Xalapa Museum of Anthropology was inaugurated as well as the Coatzacoalco-Salina Cruz highway. The Veracruz city international airport was opened in the 1970s.[13]

In the ten years after 2006, at least 3,600 people have disappeared within the state.[21] Multiple mass graves have been found within the state.[22] This is seen as part of the over 28,000 missing individuals related to the Mexican Drug War.[23] Within the state the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas have battled for control.[24] Additionally, this has led to journalists being targeted and killed within the state.[25]

Geography

[edit]

Political geography

[edit]

The state is a crescent-shaped strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east.[17] Its total area is 78,815 km2 (30,431 sq mi), accounting for about 3.7% of Mexico's total territory.[26] It stretches about 650 km (403.9 mi) north to south, but its width varies from between 212 and 36 km (132 and 22 mi), with an average of about 100 km (62 mi) in width.[27][28] Veracruz borders Tamaulipas to the north; Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south; Tabasco to the southeast; and Hidalgo, Puebla, and San Luis Potosí to the west. Its coastline along the Gulf of Mexico extends for 690 km (429 mi).[12]

Natural geography

[edit]
Pico de Orizaba
Jamapa River

The natural geography can be categorized into nine regions: The Sierra de Zongolica, the Tecolutla Region, the Huayacocotla Region, the Metlac River area, the Tuxtlas Region, the Central Region, the Laguna del Castillo Region, the Pueblo Viejo-Tamiahua Region and the Laguna de Alvarado Region.[27] The topography changes drastically, rising from the narrow coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico's highest peak at 5,636 m (18,491 ft) above sea level.[26][12] The coast is home to numerous tidewater streams and lagoons, which alternate with low strips of sand.[28] Most of the long coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons, and points.[27]

The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mountain ranges include the Sierra de Topila, Sierra de Otontepec, Sierra de Huayacocotla, Sierra de Coxquihui, Sierra de Chiconquiaco, Sierra de Jalacingo, Sierra de Axocuapan, Sierra de Huatusco, Sierra de Zongolica, and the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas. Major peaks include Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m; 18,491 ft), Cofre de Perote (4,282 m; 14,048.6 ft), Cerro de Tecomates (3,227 m; 10,587 ft), Cerro del Vigía Alta (3,055 m; 10,023 ft) and Cerro de 3 Tortas (2,997 m; 9,833 ft). The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round; the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter. Major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés.[27]

Veracruz has over 40 rivers and tributaries, which transport rich silt from the state's highlands to its coastal regions and valleys. These rivers also provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation.[28] All of the rivers and streams that cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa, flowing east to the Gulf of Mexico. The important ones include: Actopan River, Acuatempan river, Río Blanco, Cazones River, Coatzacoalcos River, Río de La Antigua, Ayyappan River, Jamapa River, Nautla River, Pánuco River, Papaloapan River, Tecolutla River, Tonalá River, Tuxpan River and Xoloapa River. The largest in terms of water discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos and Uxpanapa. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable.[27] Two of Mexico's most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state. Much of the pollution comes from industrial sources, but the discharge of sewerage and uncontrolled garbage disposal are also major contributors. The state has very few sewage treatment plants, with only 10% of sewage being treated before discharge.[29]

The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There is only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco. Off the coast are the islands of Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios, Isla de Salmendina, Isla del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan, Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo.[27]

Major communities

[edit]

Localities

[edit]

Climate

[edit]
Mountain formation in the south of the state
Veracruz
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
50
 
 
24
14
 
 
32
 
 
28
16
 
 
18
 
 
28
16
 
 
48
 
 
31
19
 
 
73
 
 
33
21
 
 
308
 
 
29
20
 
 
250
 
 
29
19
 
 
125
 
 
31
21
 
 
387
 
 
28
20
 
 
204
 
 
27
18
 
 
54
 
 
25
14
 
 
36
 
 
25
14
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█ Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Comisión Nacional del Agua
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
2
 
 
75
57
 
 
1.3
 
 
82
61
 
 
0.7
 
 
82
61
 
 
1.9
 
 
88
66
 
 
2.9
 
 
91
70
 
 
12
 
 
84
68
 
 
9.8
 
 
84
66
 
 
4.9
 
 
88
70
 
 
15
 
 
82
68
 
 
8
 
 
81
64
 
 
2.1
 
 
77
57
 
 
1.4
 
 
77
57
█ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█ Precipitation totals in inches

The large variation of altitude results in a large mixture of climates, from cold, snow-topped mountain peaks to hot, humid tropical areas on the coast.[12] 32% of the state is classified as hot and humid, 52% as hot and semi humid, 9% is warm and humid, 6% as temperate and humid and 1% is classified as cold.[26] Hot and humid and hot and semi-humid climates dominate from sea level to about 1,000 m (3,281 ft) above sea level. Average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 26 °C (72 to 79 °F) with precipitation varying from 2,000 mm (79 in) to just over 3,500 mm (138 in) per year. Cooler and humid climates are found at elevations between 1,000 and 1,600 m (3,281 and 5,249 ft). These have an average temperature of between 18 and 22 °C (64 and 72 °F) with precipitation varying between 2,000 and 2,500 mm (79 and 98 in). Temperate climates are found at higher altitudes, between 1,600 and 2,800 m (5,249 and 9,186 ft). Temperatures here vary from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) with precipitation varying more, between 500 and 2,500 mm (20 and 98 in). Cold climates are found at the highest elevations, reaching up to the Cofre de Perote and the Pico de Orizaba. There is a small semiarid region around the city of Perote and the west of the Huasteca area. This is due to a rain shadow caused by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Sierra Madre Oriental, which do not permit the flow of moist Gulf air to this region.[27]

Ecosystems

[edit]
Shore of Lake Catemaco
Bougainvillea

Various types of forest cover the state, but evergreen tropical forest dominate.[27] The state's ecology is of great importance for many plant and animal species. It is a center of plant endemism and has two separate endemic bird areas.[31]

The northern part of the state as well as the higher mountain areas, are convergence zones between lowland evergreen tropical forests and more temperate flora and fauna. It is also the northernmost occurrence of subhumid tropical forest in Mexico, although little of this remains, mostly on steep slopes. The tropical forests of the Veracruz moist forests ecoregion are situated in the northeastern coastal plain and extend into southern Tamaulipas state, on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The soils here are volcanic and shallow, but with rich organic matter. Species that predominate include Mayan breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), rosadillo (Celtis monoica), Bursera simaruba, Dendropanax arboreus, and Sideroxylon capiri. This ecoregion extends into the central part of the state, with vegetation changing to include mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), Bernoullia flammea, and Astronium graveolens.[31] In the central part of the state, the Veracruz dry forests extend from the Sierra to the coast, south of the Sierra de Chiconquiaco. The Petén–Veracruz moist forests occupy the southern part of the state, and extend eastwards through neighboring Chiapas and Tabasco states into Guatemala.

Veracruz has been described as having one of the richest varieties of wildlife in the western hemisphere. There is an especially diverse array of endemic insects like the conspicuous Arsenura armida. As well as insects, the state is known for its many arachnids, and features over 25 species of tarantula (Theraphosidae), of which many are endemic. The state is part of Birdlife International's Endemic Bird Area(EBA) project due to the number of endemic birds here. Some of these include green-cheeked amazon (Amazona viridigenalis), Tamaulipas crow (Corvus imparatus), Altamira yellowthroat (Geothlypis flavovelata) and crimson-collared grosbeak (Rhodothraupis celaeno). Despite much of the deterioration of the forest areas, it is still an important stopover for migratory birds as well. Many endangered mammal species can be found here including two endemic rodents (Peromyscus ochraventer and Neotoma angustapalata), the jaguar (Panthera onca), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi) and white-nosed coati (Nasua narica).[31] The endangered Baird's tapir may occasionally be spotted in the state's southern jungle regions, such as Biósfera Los Tuxtlas. This region is also the northernmost extent of the primate Alouatta palliata, or mantled howler.

Most of Veracruz's native forests have been destroyed and replaced by scrub and secondary communities of trees. From 1900 to 1987, over 18,553 km2 (7,163.4 sq mi) of forest had been logged, resulting in the loss of habitat and biodiversity. Much of the logging is due to commercial timber, search for tropical hardwoods and the clearing of land for local farmers, especially for cattle grazing. Only 20% of Veracruz's original ecosystem remains, with 64% transformed by human exploitation. Despite some efforts at conservation and reclamation, exploitation continues to put pressure on remaining wild areas.[31]

The state has 31 environmentally protected areas in 21 different municipalities. Nine are urban parks, three are national parks (Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote and San José de los Molinos).[27] The Cofre de Perote National Park is 11,700 hectares of pine and oyamel forest, which was created in 1937. The Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve covers the municipalities of Ángel R. Cabada, Santiago Tuxtla, San Andres Tuxtla, Catemaco, Soteapan, Mecayapan, Pajapan and Tatahuicapan for a total of 155,122 ha (383,314.8 acres). It contains various volcanos such as San Martín and Santa Marta and rich biodiversity as it stretches from sea level to higher elevations, with 16 climate regions groups into four climate types. Forest types range from evergreen tropical rainforest to pine. 75% of species here are also found in Central America and there is a total of 2,368 plant species. Some, such as Costus dirzoi, Daphnopsis megacarpa, Eugenia sotoesparzae, Inga sinacae, Miconia ibarrae, Mormodes tuxtlensis, and Thelypteris rachyflexuosa, are native only to this area. Wildlife includes 102 mammal species, 49 amphibian, 109 reptilian, 561 bird species and more. Species in danger of extinction include the jaguar, spider monkey and anteater.[27]

The Veracruz Reef System is also considered to be a national park and is mostly off the coast of Veracruz city, Boca del Río and Alvarado. The area includes coral reefs, seaweed beds and other marine vegetation, covering an area of 52,239 ha (129,085.4 acres). There are seventeen reefs in total, some of which jut above the surface to form small islands. This system links with the reef systems of Campeche and Yucatán.[27]

Economy

[edit]

Veracruz has one of Mexico's leading economies, based on agriculture and petroleum.[28]

Agriculture

[edit]
Vanilla beans

The primary sector of the economy (agriculture, forestry and fishing) has been important since pre-Hispanic times and continues to be important both as a source of income as well as culturally. The state has abundant rainfall and extremely fertile soils, as well as a long coastline and forest containing a wide variety of trees and other plants.[12][32]

There is about 1 million hectares of cultivable land, half of which is in private hands and 43% is ejido or communal land. The rest is occupied by human settlements. There are 3,620 ejidos parceled out to 270,000 ejido members. 52.5% of agricultural land is used for the growing of crops or used as pasture and 43.1% is forest or rainforest. Chief agricultural products include coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, tobacco, bananas, coconuts, and vegetables, but local farmers depend mainly on corn and beans.[28] Two corn crops per year are generally produced, planted on 644,936 hectares with a production of 1,114,325 tons. The state is the leading national producer of coffee, sugarcane, corn, and rice.[12] Coffee is grown on 152,993 hectares producing 400,575 tons. Export earnings from this crop are about US$232 million annually. Most coffee is grown in the mountain areas of Córdoba-Huatusco, Coatepec-Teocelo-Cosautlán and Misantla-Tlapacoyan-Atzalan. Sugarcane is cultivated on 254,000 hectares, producing 16,867,958 tons annually. Veracruz is the largest producer of rice with 24,000 hectares producing 120,000 tons. Much is this crop is protected by import bans from Asia. [citation needed]

The state grows half of the country's citrus fruit and grows the most kinds. This occupies 180,577 hectares and produces 2,575,140 tons annually. Varieties include oranges, tangerines, mandarins, limes and grapefruit. Most citrus is grown in the north of the state, and much of the lime crop is exported, supporting a packing and shipping industry. Veracruz is the largest mango producer in the country, grown on 31,640 hectares producing 287,000 tons. Most of this is the manila variety, which is preferred in Mexico. 95% of this crop is consumed fresh within Mexico although exports to Canada have begun. [citation needed] Vanilla beans are native to the state, which is the primary producer for Mexico. Most of this crop is grown in an area known as Totonacapan in and around Papantla.

Livestock raising is an important activity. There are over 300,000 units of production most of which raise cattle, with Veracruz being the main beef producer for the country at 14% of the total. In addition to beef cattle, dairy cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, domestic fowl, and bees are raised.[28]

The state's inland tropical forests supply dyewoods, hardwoods, and rubber.[12] About 20% of the state's territory is forested, with 220,000 of temperate forest and 1,200,000 hectares of tropical forests. Logging in the state produces 128,254 m3 of wood products per year. The most exploited species include pine, oyamel, cypress and oak. Some tropical hardwoods are harvested as well.

Veracruz's long coastline supports a large fishing industry, producing one-fifth of Mexico's catch. Most of the country's mojarra, oysters and shrimp come from here. Other major fish catches include crab, sea bass and red snapper.

Agroindustry focuses on the processing of coffee and sugar products, with citrus packers holding an important position as well. [citation needed]

Natural resources

[edit]
Petroleum tower in Poza Rica

Veracruz, a resource-rich state, plays a significant role in Mexico's economy. It hosts about 35% of the country's water supply, and is a key hub for oil production.[12] While the state's mountains also contain unexploited coal, iron, gold, and silver reserves, its mining activity primarily focuses on non-metallic minerals such as calcium, feldspar, kaolin, marble, and silica. The state ranks fourth in the country for non-metallic mineral output. In total, mining contributes 1.5% to the state's economy.[12]

Veracruz was a pioneer in both the extraction and refining of petroleum products.[27] The state has about one-fourth of Mexico's petroleum reserves and ranks third in petroleum production.[27][28] Most of this production is concentrated in the northern part of the state.[12] Approximately 40,000,000 barrels (6,400,000 m3) of oil are produced each year and 109,870,000,000 cubic feet (3.111×109 m3) of natural gas. Petrochemicals represent 28.1% of the state's manufacturing and ranks first nationally. There are 22 petrochemical plants, with the most important being La Cangrejera, Jáltipan de Morelos, Poza Rica, Cosoleacaque, Pajaritos and Minatitlán.

Golden Lane Oil Fields

[edit]
Map of the Golden Lane[33]

The "Golden Lane" ("Dos Bocas-Alamo structure" or The Ridge") refers to a series of oil fields aligned in an arc onshore and a symmetrical alignment offshore, forming two sides of a Cretaceous atoll 180 km long.[34] The structure was discovered in 1908 by Weetman Pearson's Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company San diego de la Mar No. 1 well, which flowed 2,500 bbl/day.[34] The Golden Lane oil fields penetrate a massive elliptical reef platform, identified as the Sierra del Abra limestone (consisting of reef, backreef and lagoonal facies), which dips southeast.[35] The site for the discovery well was selected due to the presence of petroleum seeps, just as was Edward Laurence Doheny's La Paz No. well in the Ebano-Panuco petroleum district west of Tampico, Tamaulipas, the first Mexican discovery well in 1904.[36] In 1908, the infamous Dos Bocas oil fire occurred after the San Diego de la Mar No. 3 blowout.[37] This was followed by the Potrero del Llano No. 4 well, flowing 100,000 bbl per day during the three months it was out of control.[37] Doheny's Cerro Azul No. 4 well, located by Ezequiel Ordonez, became the largest daily production record holder in 1916 at 260,000 bbl.[37] Geophysical studies, in particular gravimetry, starting in 1920 led to the discovery of the Poza Rica Field in 1932 and Moralillo Field in 1948, on the west flank of the Golden Lane in the Tamabra forereef facies.[38] Refraction seismography surveys started in 1930, augemented in 1948 with reflection seismography, which led to the discovery of the southern extent of the atoll with the Ezequiel Ordonez No. 1 well in 1952 and additional discoveries through 1968.[39] Marine seismic and magnetometer surveys starting in 1957 showed the extent of the atoll offshore and led to the first offshore well, Isla de Lobos No. 1-B, in 1963.[39] The depths of wells are on the order of 500 m onshore and 2000 m offshore.[40]

Industry, transportation and commerce

[edit]
A portion of the port of Veracruz

Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Plant (LVNPP) in Alto Lucero, Veracruz, produces about 4.5% of Mexico's electrical energy.

The newest of these are the municipalities of San Rafael and Santiago Sochiapan which were created in 2003.[60] These municipalities are grouped into regions called Huasteca Alta (with ten municipalities), Huasteca Baja (with 23 municipalities), Totonac (with 15 municipalities), Nautla (with 11 municipalities), Capital (with 33 municipalities), Sotavento (with 12 municipalities), De las Montañas (with 57 municipalities), Papaloapan (with 22 municipalities), De los Tuxtlas (with four municipalities) and Olmeca (with 25 municipalities).[61]

Freedom of the press violations

[edit]

According to many journalists' organizations, Veracruz is one of the most dangerous places for journalists, especially after governor Javier Duarte de Ochoa came to power in December 2010.[62]

Infrastructure

[edit]

Transport

[edit]

The road system in the state contains 16,039 km (9,966.2 mi), representing 5.1% of the roads nationwide. For each 100 km2 (38.6 sq mi) of territory, there are 22 km (13.7 mi) of roads. 3,144.5 km (1,953.9 mi) are part of the federal highway system. State roads comprise 2,176 km (1,352.1 mi) with the rest maintained by local authorities. There are over 3,000 km (1,864.1 mi) of rural roads, but only 71.5 km (44.4 mi) are paved.[52]

The state contains 1,675.3 km (1,041.0 mi) of railway. Most of this is conceded by the federal government to private companies, with strategic stretches maintained directly by the government. Some of the private companies include Kansas City Southern de México and Ferrosur. These lines are used almost exclusively for the transportation of freight, which in 1999 added up to 37 million tons. Three rail lines serve the port of Veracruz exclusively. One is dedicated to the port of Coatzacalcos.[52]

The ports of Veracruz are Tuxpan, Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Pajaritos, Minatitlán-Nanchital, Tecolutla, Nautla, Alvarado and Tlacotalpan. The first three are the ports for heavy cargo ships, with Veracruz the most important of the three. The others are small ports for small ships, fishing boats and tourism. All ports are operated privately with the exception of Pajaritos, which is operated by PEMEX. Port traffic in Veracruz account for 10% of all commercial traffic in the country, 23.4% of the port traffic of Mexico and 21% of all port traffic in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Goods imported through the state reach 16 out of Mexico's 31 states plus Mexico City. The port of Veracruz alone handles over 12 million tons of freight per year. Coatzacoalcos is important for its handling of petroleum products.[52]

The state contains three major airports. "El Tajín" in Tihuatlán serving Poza Rica and "Canticas" in Minatitlán provide national service. "Heriberto Jara Corona" in the city of Veracruz provides national and international service. There are also 31 smaller regional airfields in municipalities such as Acayucán, Cazones de Herrera, Córdoba, Cuitlahuac, Juán Rodríguez Clara, Ozuluama, Platón Sánchez, Playa Vicente, Soconusco, Tamalín, Tamiahua, Tecolutla, Temapache, Tempoal and Tierra Blanca.[52]

Media

[edit]

There are 59 local newspapers and 40 magazines published in the state. These include El Dictamen,[63] El Sol del Centro,[64] la Opinión de Minatitlán,[65] Diario de Xalapa, El Diario de Minatitlán, El Mundo de Córdoba, El Mundo de Orizaba, El Sol de Córdoba, El Sol de Orizaba, Esto de Veracruz, Imagen de Veracruz, La Jornada Veracruz, La Opinión de Poza Rica, Liberal del Sur, Milenio El Portal, Noreste Diario Regional Independiente, and Sotavento.[66][67]

There are 202 radio stations (57 AM, 35 FM). Most are commercial or private but some are operated by non-profits and governmental agencies. There are 22 television stations; two channels are local, and the rest are repeaters from national broadcasters. Five companies provide cable and satellite television. Telmex controls over 75% of the telephone service in the state.[52]

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Latin American Spanish: [beɾaˈkɾus] ⓘ
  2. ^ Latin American Spanish: [beɾaˈkɾus ðejɣˈnasjo ðe la ˈʝaβe]
  3. ^ Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave

References

[edit]
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  35. ^ Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, mexico, in Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 14, pp. 314 and 316, 1970.
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Further reading

[edit]
  • Booker, Jackie R. (1993). Veracruz Merchants, 1770–1829: A Mercantile Elite in Late Bourbon and Early Independent Mexico. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
  • Carroll, Patrick J. (1991). Blacks in Colonial Veracruz. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Jiménez González, Victor Manuel, ed. (2010). Veracruz Guia para descubrir los encantos del estado [Veracruz Guide to Discover the Charms of the State] (in Spanish) (First ed.). Océano, Mexico: Editorial Oceano de Mexico SA de CV. ISBN 978-607-400-323-9.
  • Knaut, Andrew L. (November 1997). "Yellow Fever and the Late Colonial Public Health Response in the Port of Veracruz". Hispanic American Historical Review 77:4. 619–644. doi:10.2307/2516981. JSTOR 2516981.
[edit]
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